A Thesis Submitted to
The Faculty of
Thomas Aquinas College
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts
by
Joseph Bolin
Advisor: Dr. Larry Shields
April, 2001
Arise,
my love, my fair one,
And
come away;
For
lo, the winter is past,
The
rain is over and gone.
The
flowers appear on the earth,
The
time of singing has come.
Introduction: The question and the answer to it
The proof: St. Thomas’s argument is presented
Religious life is better in itself
This is shown by authority
The reasons for this are given
There is no reason for doubt about the ability
This is proven from authority
Objections to this premise
Objection from authority
Objections from reason
Objection against this method
Objections against the consequences of this position
Objections based on vocation
Objection based on consequences to humility and charity
Practical consequences
Afterword
Bibliography
Appendices
A: Original texts of certain passages (not included here)
B: Summa Theologiae II-II 189-10 and other passages from St. Thomas
C: Texts from Sacra Virginitas (not included here)
D: Reasons why people hold contrary positions (not included here)
Note: This work concerns religious vocation, and is aimed at countering certain errors concerning such a vocation that are rather prevalent in our time. For a consideration of vocation in general, whether to marriage, priesthood, or religious life, see the author’s later work Paths of Love: The Discerment of Vocation According to Aquinas, Ignatius, and Pope John Paul II. This latter work is also not as much directed against current mistakes, and is therefore a more balanced treatment than the present work.
Almost everyone at some point in time considers the question, what should I do with my life? If they are Christians, they may put this in terms such as, what does God want me to do with my life? What is my vocation? In many cases, these questions cause a great deal of worry, and sometimes even fear. For various reasons, these questions are usually more pressing for those who want to enter religious life. In particular, since they want to give themselves entirely to the service of God, they are especially concerned about whether God wants them to enter religious life.
But perhaps much of this worry is unnecessary. The advice given in past times might have been something like this: if you are determined to do the most that you can to serve God, whatever that is, and nothing such as bodily weakness or duties toward others stands in your way, then you should enter religious life. The question of a vocation to religious life might not even be brought up. If it was brought up, it would be only in order to give a reason why someone in the aforesaid situation should enter religious life. For example, St. Alphonsus writes this:
How singular a thing it is, when there is question of entering religion1 to lead a life more perfect and more free from the dangers of the world, the men of the world say that it is necessary to deliberate a long time before putting such resolutions in execution, in order to ascertain whether the vocation comes from God or from the devil.…
The saints, however, do not talk thus. St. Thomas says that if the vocation to religion should even come from the devil, we should nevertheless follow it, as a good counsel, though coming from an enemy. St. John Chrysostom, as quoted by the same St. Thomas, says that God, when he gives such vocations, wills that we should not defer even a moment to follow them. Christ requires from us such an obedience that we should not delay an instant.…
Let us also hear what St. Francis de Sales writes in his works on religious vocation, because the whole of it will go to confirm what has already been said, and what will be said hereafter: “To have a sign of a true vocation, it is not necessary that our constancy be sensible, it suffices if it be in the superior part of our soul. And therefore we must not judge that a vocation is not a true one, if the individual thus called, before putting it in execution, does not feel any longer those sensible movements which he felt in the beginning. Even should he feel a repugnance and coldness, which sometimes bring him to waver, and make it appear to him that all is lost. It is enough that the will remains constant in not abandoning the divine call, and also that there remains some affection for this call. To know whether God will have one become a religious, one ought not to expect that God himself should speak or send to one an angel from heaven to signify his will. And as little necessary is it that ten or twelve Doctors should examine whether the vocation is to be followed or not. But it is necessary to correspond with the first movement of the inspiration, and to cultivate it, and then not to grow weary if disgust or coldness should come on; for if one acts thus, God will not fail to make all succeed in his glory. Nor ought we to care much from what quarter the first movement comes. The Lord has many means to call his servants. Sometimes he makes use of a sermon, at other times of the reading of good books. Some, as St. Anthony and St. Francis, have been called by hearing the words of the Gospel; others by means of afflictions and troubles that came upon them in the world, and which suggested to them the motive for leaving it. These persons, although they come to God only because they are disgusted with the world or out of favor with it, nevertheless, failing not to give themselves to him with their whole will, become sometimes greater saints than those who entered religion with a more apparent vocation…”2
The view presented in this passage concerning the choice of religious life is quite opposed to the modern3 view. It would now be considered rash to choose to enter religious life without having thought about it for a long time. But if the saints were right about these things, then the modern view is wrong, and there is no need for those who desire religious life to have much anxiety about choosing it.4
I intend in this thesis to prove this position, that it is not necessary to deliberate or consider for a long period of time before choosing to enter religious life. I will first give St. Thomas’s argument for this position, and then expound and defend it. After that, I will answer objections which are raised directly against this position concerning the choice of religious life, and set forth some of the practical consequences of the position.
Before beginning the argument a couple of things should be noted. The first of these regards the use of terms in this thesis. By consecrated life I will mean a life devoted to God by vows or other promises of poverty, chastity, and obedience.5 (Unless otherwise made clear by context, throughout this thesis chastity will mean complete continence, that is, abstinence from all sexual intercourse.) I will not normally distinguish much between religious life and consecrated life, and will usually speak in terms of religious life. There are several reasons for doing this. First, the terminology used in regard to religious life is more familiar. Secondly, religious life is the most common form of consecrated life. When these two are contrasted, religious life will mean a life consecrated by public vows of the evangelical counsels, and lived in a community.6
The second thing that should be noted is that it is one thing to ask whether long deliberation is required before choosing to enter religious life, and another thing to ask whether a long time is required before seeking admission. I intend principally to prove that long deliberation is not required before choosing to enter religious life, though I will say some things that bear upon the other question as well.
At the very end of the treatise on man, St. Thomas considers the question whether it is praiseworthy for someone to enter religious life without long deliberation, and having taken counsel from many people.7 He gives a positive answer to this question, by a simple argument. Long deliberation is required for great and doubtful things, but not for things which are certain and determined. Since Christ counseled entrance into religious life, it is certain that considered in itself it is better. And since those who enter religious life look for the ability to live it not from themselves, but from God, there is also no reason in general for doubt concerning one’s ability to live that life. If someone has specific obstacles such as bodily weakness, great debts, or similar things, then deliberation is required, and counsel from people who can be expected to help and not to hinder. But even here long deliberation is not necessary. St. Thomas adds that counsel may also be taken as to the manner of entering, and which religious order one should enter.
The two chief premises used in this argument are that religious life considered in itself is the better thing, and that there is no reason to doubt that one who enters it will be able to live it. The first of these is well-known by those familiar with Catholic teaching, so I will only present a few texts proving it, and then give some of the reasons why it is so.
Christ and St. Paul counsel perpetual chastity in contrast to marriage. But counsel is given in regard to a better good. Therefore perpetual chastity is better than marriage.
The disciples said to him, “If such is the case of a man with his wife, it is not expedient to marry.” But he said to them, “Not all men receive8 this precept, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it.”9
To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain single as I do.10
The excellence of chastity over marriage has also been constantly and universally taught by the Church.
32. This doctrine of the excellence of virginity and of celibacy and of their superiority over the married state was, as We have already said, revealed by our Divine Redeemer and by the Apostle of the Gentiles; so too, it was solemnly defined as a dogma of divine faith by the holy council of Trent11, and explained in the same way by all the holy Fathers and Doctors of the Church. Finally, We and Our Predecessors have often expounded it and earnestly advocated it whenever occasion offered.12
Similarly, Christ counsels perfect poverty as a way to perfection.
If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me.13
He then makes clear that the reward of poverty is offered not only to the man to whom he was speaking, but to all who embrace it for his sake.
Every one who has left houses or brothers or sisters or fathers or mother or children or lands, for my name’s sake, will receive a hundredfold, and inherit eternal life.14
The counsel of obedience is not found as explicitly in the Scriptures. However, it can be drawn from his statement to the young man, “If you wish to be perfect, go…. And come, follow me.”15 Evidently those who followed him had to obey him in a way not required of all. It can also be taken as a way of more closely imitating Christ in his obedience even unto death.16
Now if each of these is good by itself, and they are not opposed to one another, then it follows that it is better to follow Christ in all three things, namely chastity, poverty, and obedience. This is also shown by the authority of the Church
That man who by pledging his word to God obliges himself under vow to observe the counsels, does more than free himself from the snares which ordinarily slow men down on the way to holiness – fortune, the cares and duties of marriage, unbridled and limitless liberty – he approaches perfection by a route so direct and so easy that he seems already to have dropped anchor in the harbor of salvation.17
Even if by virtue of the clerical state itself, the evangelical counsels are not imposed on ecclesiastics in order that they may be really able to attain this holiness of life, nevertheless, these same counsels are open to them, just as to all the Christian faithful, as the surest way to reach the desired goal of Christian perfection.18
35… The Church has always seen in the profession of the evangelical counsels a special path to holiness… It is not by chance that there have been so many consecrated persons down the centuries who have left behind eloquent testimonies of holiness and have undertaken particularly generous and demanding works of evangelization and service.19
It is thus evident that the way of the counsels is a more perfect way considered in itself. However, in order to see more clearly why it is generally better for men to follow this path, it will be helpful to consider why it is a better way.
First, by these three counsels one renounces all the things of this world, which draw man away from God. For the things of this world are threefold, “the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life.”20 These are given up by chastity, poverty, and obedience, as far as it is possible for them to be given up. Thus, while these three counsels are not the only counsels, they in a certain way contain the others, which involve giving up these goods only partly, or only for a time. For example, if someone gives alms when he is not bound to do so, he gives up a part of his possessions; if someone abstains from sexual relations for a time to devote himself to prayer, he gives up sexual intercourse for a time; if someone does not follow his own will when he could licitly do so, as by forgiving someone an offense for which he could punish him, then he gives up his own will with respect to that particular matter.21
Secondly, these three counsels take a man’s care away from earthly things, allowing him to have undivided devotion to the Lord. For as man’s desires, so his cares are found especially in three things: external things, the care of which is taken away by poverty; a spouse and children, the care for whom is taken away by continence; and his own actions, the care of which is taken away by obedience. Thus St. Paul says that it is better to be unmarried in order to be free from cares.
I want you to be free from anxieties. The unmarried man is anxious about the affairs of the Lord, how to please the Lord; but the married man is anxious about worldly affairs, how to please his wife, and his interests are divided. And the unmarried woman or girl is anxious about the affairs of the Lord, how to be holy in body and spirit; but the married woman is anxious about worldly affairs, how to please her husband.22
In the parable of the sower these two motives are shown implicitly by the seed which fell among thorns, which is “he who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the delight in riches choke the word, and it proves unfruitful.”23
A third reason, dependent upon these previous two, is that by these three counsels someone offers all that he has to God, namely his exterior goods by poverty, his body by chastity, and his soul by obedience.24
These reasons are certainly not exhaustive, but they are among the most fundamental, since most of the other reasons for consecrated and religious life are based upon these. Now it is clear that each of these reasons wholly apply to all men except those who have reached a great degree of perfection and detachment from worldly things, and apply partly to them as well. Thus religious life is not better only for a few certain people, but is generally better.25 Hence St. Thomas appropriately assumes that since religious life is better it is better for the individual.
There are some cases where more good can be accomplished by marriage than by virginity. For example, it might be best in some situations for a king to marry for the sake of peace. However, this will only be the case for someone who stands in an extraordinary relation to the common good, and so most of the time this possibility need not be considered.
The second premise in St. Thomas’s argument is that since one looks for the ability to live the religious life from God, then if one has no specific obstacles there is no reason to doubt that one could live it. This premise is not as readily granted as the other one, so I will first argue for it, and then answer some objections which are raised against it.
Before arguing for this premise, it should be clarified. It is not sufficient for the argument to say that the ability to live the religious life is from God, for bodily strength is also from God, yet it does not follow that one who lacks bodily strength can enter religious life expecting the strength from God. Thus for the argument it is necessary to go further, and to say that the gift necessary to live the religious life is the sort of gift that is to be looked for from God rather than found in oneself. Moreover, it must be the sort of gift that will surely be given in answer to one’s prayers, as opposed to gifts such as that of prophecy, or speaking in tongues. If these conditions are fulfilled, then the ability is at least remotely in each one’s power.
In regard to continence, Christ says “not all men receive this precept, [that it is better not to marry] but only those to whom it is given.”26 Leaving aside for now a complete interpretation of this statement, it is evident that receiving the counsel of continence is given to men by God. Christ then explains what he said by adding, “For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven.” Hence this gift of God is neither a natural gift, nor a merely human one. Thus it should be looked for from God as something which he gives beyond nature, not as something he gives in giving nature.
Christ also shows that to withdraw someone’s heart from riches is a gift of God.
Jesus said to his disciples, “Truly, I say to you, it will be hard for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven. Again I tell you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.” When the disciples heard this they were greatly astonished, saying, “Who then can be saved?” But Jesus looked at them and said to them, “With men this is impossible, but with God all things are possible.”27
In this passage, Christ first says that it is hard for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven, then when he says that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye etc., he intimates that it is impossible for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God. When he says that it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God, we can understand by rich man either someone who actually has riches, or someone who loves riches. Both of these readings are found in the Fathers. If we take it in the first way, then the meaning of Christ’s second statement is that someone who has riches can be saved only by God’s help. Given that Christ says this after the young man goes away sad because he was too attached to his riches to give them up and follow Christ, this help would almost certainly be that of keeping the love of riches from his heart. If we read this passage in the second way, then the impossibility of a rich man’s entering the kingdom of God is based upon the fact that it is impossible to love God and riches, and so again what is impossible for men, but possible for God, is to remove the love of riches from man’s heart, and to turn it to God. From this it follows that the ability to embrace religious poverty is from God, rather than from some natural disposition.
The Fathers also testify that the ability to live in perfect chastity should be looked for from God, and that it is given to those who desire it and ask him for it.
Seeing that some make a sophistical attack on the saying, “To whom it is given,” as if those who wished to remain pure in celibacy, but were mastered by their desires, had an excuse, we must say that, if we believe the Scriptures, why at all do we lay hold of the saying, “But they to whom it is given,” but no longer attend to this, “Ask and it shall be given to you,” and to that which is added to it, “For every one that asketh receiveth”? For if they “to whom it is given” can receive this saying about absolute purity, let him who wills ask, obeying and believing Him who said, “Ask and it shall be given you,” and not doubting about the saying, “Every one that asketh receiveth.”… God therefore will give the good gift, perfect purity in celibacy and chastity, to those who ask Him with the whole soul, and with faith, and in prayers without ceasing.28
Let no one think that by this word either fate or fortune is introduced, for those are virgins to whom it is given by God, or that chance has led to this, but it is given to those who have asked for it, who have desired it, who have worked that they might receive it. For it will be given to the one who asks, the seeker will find, and to the one who knocks it will be opened.29
It is also constantly reaffirmed in Church documents:
62. Never should it be forgotten that perfect chastity is a great gift of God. For this reason Jerome wrote these succinct words, “It is given to those, who have asked for it, who have desired it, who have worked to receive it. For it will be given to everyone who asks, the seeker will find, to the importunate it will be opened.”30
12. The chastity “for the sake of the kingdom of heaven” (Mt. 19:12) which religious profess should be counted an outstanding gift of grace.… Religious, therefore, who are striving faithfully to observe the chastity they have professed must have faith in the words of the Lord, and trusting in God’s help not overestimate their own strength but practice mortification and custody of the senses. Neither should they neglect the natural means which promote health of mind and body. As a result they will not be influenced by those false doctrines which scorn perfect continence as being impossible or harmful to human development and they will repudiate by a certain spiritual instinct everything which endangers chastity.31
As I mentioned above, from the fact that the ability to embrace the evangelical counsels is to be looked for from God, it follows that everyone is at least remotely able to embrace them, and thus it is in general up to an individual to choose whether or not to embrace them. This is implied in the two passages quoted from Origen and Jerome, but is even clearer in some other places.
When you hear, “to whom it is given,” add, it is given to those who desire it and assent to it.32
It is in our power, whether we want to be perfect. But whoever wants to be perfect, should sell all that he has…and when he has sold, give everything to the poor.33
If it is of free choice, one may say, how does He say, at the beginning, “All men do not receive it, but they to whom it is given?” That you might learn that the conflict is great, not that you should suspect any compulsory allotments. For it is given to those, even to the willing. But he spoke thus to show that much influence from above is needed by him who enters these lists, whereof he that is willing shall surely partake. For it is customary for Him to use this form of speech when the good work done is great, as when He says, “To you it is given to know the mysteries.”34
All who want to be continent are able to be, because sufficient help to be continent, or to obtain this grace by prayer, is denied to no one.35
This is also shown by a letter of St. Alphonsus de Liguori.
Live Jesus, Mary, Joseph
Arienzo, September 27, 1769.
I answer your letter.
A young person can save her soul by remaining in the world; but it cannot be denied, that in the world, especially at the present time, there are many more dangers of committing sin and losing one’s soul.
The rule then to follow is this. If any person loves chastity, she ought to choose what is more perfect, that is, she should consecrate her virginity to Jesus Christ. By acting thus, she will be much less exposed to damn herself; and this is the counsel that I give you.
If you are going to be a nun, I should greatly desire that you be a true nun; that you receive Communion frequently; make meditation morning and evening; above all bear contradictions without complaining, and obey your Superiors without replying. If, therefore, you wish to enter religion, it will be necessary for you to behave now as a religious. I will recommend you to Jesus Christ. Please render me the same service, and believe me,
Your very humble servant.
Alfonso Maria,
Bishop of Sant’ Agata.36
St. Alphonsus does not say, if a person loves chastity, and has a special gift to keep perfect chastity, that is continence, then she should consecrate her virginity to Christ. He does not so qualify his statement. And since certainly everyone can love chastity, it is clear that everyone has it at least remotely in his power to keep perfect chastity.
A number of objections are raised against this premise. First objections are raised from authority. Christ says he who can receive this, let him receive it37, implying that not all men can receive it. St. Paul also teaches the same thing where he says that each has his own gift from God, etc.38 This is again repeated by the Fathers, and by the Church.
Be not afraid that all will become virgins: virginity is a hard matter, and therefore rare, because it is hard; “Many are called, few chosen.” Many begin, few persevere. And so the reward is great for those who have persevered. If all were able to be virgins, our Lord would never have said: “He that is able to receive it, let him receive it:” And the Apostle would not have hesitated to give his advice, – “Now concerning virgins I have no commandment of the Lord.”39
For many, undoubtedly, the burden of perpetual continence is a heavier one than they should be persuaded to shoulder.40
Then objections are raised based on reason. And first it is objected that just as bodily weakness can prevent one from living religious life, which weakness God does not always take away, so also there may be bodily dispositions which might prevent one from living this life. But not all bodily dispositions are evident, and so it is necessary to study one’s dispositions for a long time before entering religious life.
Secondly it is objected that though the ability to live the religious life is from God, he gives it to those who desire it and seek it, wherefore St. Jerome says that it is given to those who have asked for it, desired it, and worked to receive it. Thus it is necessary for one entering religious life to have a reasonable expectation that he will continue in his prayer and efforts to live that life. But this expectation must have some basis within him, and so before entering he must find this basis either by a study of his dispositions, or by seeing that his desire has in fact remained constant for a long time.
Before these objections are answered, two things should be noted. First, that as was mentioned above, when it is said that long deliberation is not required before entering religious life, this does not imply that any given person could immediately enter, since a delay might be necessary for something other than deliberation. In particular, there might be obstacles which would prevent someone from immediately entering religious life, but which could be overcome. In such a case someone could, without long deliberation, decide to enter religious life after the obstacles were overcome. Secondly, the statement that long deliberation is not required presupposes correct knowledge about the religious life. If someone thinks that long deliberation is required, then he cannot rightly decide to enter religious life without having deliberated for a long time. Similarly as long as someone thinks that extraordinary signs are required in order to embrace religious life rightly, he cannot rightly decide to enter religious life without determining that such extraordinary signs are present.
Now the objection raised from authority, that some are unable to enter religious life, is clearly true in some way, since the texts are too clear to be wholly misunderstood. Thus a solution must be found harmonizing this fact with what has been said. Such a solution is found in many places in St. Thomas. One such place is his commentary on the Gospel of Matthew where he explains the saying “He who can receive this, let him receive it.”
If natural ability is meant, no one is able, while if supernatural ability is meant, all are able. I say that ‘can’ includes the power of the will. For some have a firm will, while others do not. And it is manifest that he who has a firm will does not fear many impulses, while he who does not, falls by a slight impulse. Whence it is as though one were to say, he who is able by firmness of will, not from nature but from God, let him receive it. Or, he who is able according to the opportunity of the time, or condition of the time, as Abraham: whence the celibacy of John is not preferred to the marriage of Abraham. Likewise according to condition; for he who is married cannot be continent.41
Now we should consider whether this is a reasonable solution. If someone asks “Why cannot he do such a thing,” and I say “Because he does not want to,” or even “Because he does not solidly want to,” have I given a reasonable answer? It seems that I have not, for is not it one thing to be able to do something and another to want to do it? Surely I can be able to do something and yet not want to? The answer seems clear. To be able to do something and to want to do it are two different things. I can be able to do something and yet not want to do it.
However, even though it is one thing to be able to see, and another to be in the light, the latter is a condition for the former. Likewise it may happen that wanting to do something is a condition for being able to do it. For ability can be either proximate or remote. Someone may be remotely able to live the religious life, but because of a deficiency in his will, not be proximately able. Since religious life must be voluntary, and undertaken for a supernatural motive, something in the will is a condition for it, namely that someone wants to live this life in order to serve God. Moreover, since religious life imposes certain sacrifices and obligations, a person must be willing to make these sacrifices and to undertake these obligations. Thus there are two defects in the will which can hold someone back from religious life, at least as long as these are present. First, if someone does not wish to enter religious life, or wishes to enter primarily from an earthly motive, such as an assured means of living or something similar. Second, if someone wishes to enter religious life for a good reason, but is not willing to do so, or is not willing to take the necessary means.
That it is generally due to a defect of will that some individual cannot undertake celibacy can be seen in the very texts cited. First, Christ says, “Not all men receive this word, but only those to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by men, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. He who is able to receive this, let him receive it.”42 It is difficult to say for certain what the exact meaning of this text is, but it is possible and quite reasonable to understand the gift referred to as the gift of seeing the good of celibacy and being willing to undertake it. St. Thomas takes it this way, as we have seen, and many others as well, including John Paul II:
4 … At the beginning, in the first part of his statement, Christ speaks of an understanding (“not all men can understand it, but only those to whom it is given”: Mt 19:11); and it is not a question of an “understanding” in the abstract, but such as to influence the decision, the personal choice, in which the “gift”, that is, the grace should find an adequate response in the human will. Such an “understanding” involves the motivation. Subsequently, the motivation influences the choice of continence, accepted after having understood its significance “for the Kingdom of Heaven.” Christ, in the second part of his statement, declares then that a man “makes himself” a eunuch when he chooses continence for the Kingdom of Heaven and makes it the fundamental situation or state of his whole earthly life. In such a firm decision there exists a supernatural motivation, from which the decision itself originated.43
This way of speaking is quite common. We often say things like: “He cannot be thus treated and remain silent.” Such inability has its root in the will. Similarly the Jews say, “This is a hard saying; and who can listen to it?”44 The reason why some cannot listen is that they are unwilling to do so.
Taken in this way, “Not all men receive this precept, but those to whom it is given,” and “He who is able to receive this, let him receive it,” are not intended to discourage people, but rather to encourage them. And many authorities in the Church do understood them in this way.
Let the saying “All men cannot receive the saying but they to whom it is given,” be a stimulus to us to ask worthily of receiving; and this, “What son is there of you who shall ask his father for a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent,” etc.45
The Master of the Christian race offers the reward, invites candidates to the course, holds in His hand the prize of virginity, points to the fountain of purity, and cries aloud “If any man thirst, let him come unto me and drink.” “He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.”46
Qui potest capere, capiat: He that can take it, let him take it, We would wish to cry out today to Catholic young men and women, taking the word of Christ in its sense of invitation and encouragement.47
There is also another way in which we speak of inability. If someone is unlikely to succeed in doing something, we may say that he is unable to do it.
The text from Sacra Virginitas is probably best explained according to both of these ways of being unable. The immediate reason why Pius XII says that the burden of perpetual chastity is too heavy for some, is that some are very unlikely to fulfill it. And the reason why they are unlikely to fulfill it goes back to the will; they either do not solidly will to remain continent, or they are not doing the things that would aid them in the struggle for chastity. We can see this if we look at the context of Sacra Virginitas.
“All men take not this word, but they to whom it is given. . . He that can take it, let him take it.” St. Jerome, intently pondering this sacred phrase of Jesus Christ, exhorts all “that each one study his own powers, whether he can fulfill the precepts of virginal modesty. For of itself chastity is charming and attractive to all. But one’s forces must be considered, that he who can may take it. The Lord’s word is as it were an exhortation, stirring on His soldiers to the prize of purity. He that can take it, let him take it: let him who can, fight, conquer and receive his reward.”
For virginity is a difficult virtue; that one be able to embrace it there is needed not only a strong and declared determination of completely and perpetually abstaining from those legitimate pleasures derived from marriage; but also a constant vigilance and struggle to contain and dominate rebellious movements of body and soul, a flight from the importunings of this world, a struggle to conquer the wiles of Satan. How true is that saying of Chrysostom: “the root, and the flower, too, of virginity is a crucified life.” For virginity, according to Ambrose, is as a sacrificial offering, and the virgin “an oblation of modesty, a victim of chastity.” Indeed, St. Methodius, Bishop of Olympus, compares virgins to martyrs, and St. Gregory the Great teaches that perfect chastity substitutes for martyrdom: “Now, though the era of persecution is gone, yet our peace has its martyrdom, because though we bend not the neck to the sword, yet with a spiritual weapon we slay fleshly desires in our hearts.” Hence a chastity dedicated to God demands strong and noble souls, souls ready to do battle and conquer “for the sake of the kingdom of heaven.”48
From this we see that the reason why some cannot embrace virginity is that they are not ready to make this strong determination of abstaining from sexual pleasure, or they are not ready to make the struggle to maintain this virtue, are not ready to do battle in the way described.
This can sometimes be known by experience. Manifestly someone who is not prepared to give up sexual pleasure even when it is sinful is not prepared to give up all sexual pleasure. Thus, someone who has or has recently had a habit of incontinence should not make a vow of chastity. For though it is certainly true that he would be able to fulfill his vow, there would be too much danger of breaking it. The pope next speaks along lines similar to these.
Prior, therefore, to entering upon this most difficult path, all who by experience know they are too weak in spirit should humbly heed this warning of Paul the Apostle: “But if they do not contain themselves, let them marry. For it is better to marry than to be burnt.” For many, undoubtedly, the burden of perpetual continence is a heavier one than they should be persuaded to shoulder. And so priests, who are under grave obligation of helping by their advice young people who declare they are drawn by some movement of soul to aspire to the priesthood or enter religious life, must urge them to ponder the matter carefully, lest they enter a way which they cannot hope to follow sturdily and happily to its end.49
But while such people are unsuitable for religious life, still it is in their power to do things to become suitable. Those who are weak in spirit can both pray and work for strength. And as is evident from the texts quoted above, they can expect this strength to be given to them if they persevere in their prayer and efforts to obtain it. Thus experienced weakness of soul is not an absolute obstacle to perpetual continence, but one that can be overcome. And it is evidently better to solve the problem this way than by marrying, since perpetual continence is better than marriage. Hence what was said above can be applied in this case, namely that someone can decide that he will embrace perpetual continence after he has taken the means to prepare himself for it.
I have explicitly considered only the counsel of chastity because that is where objections usually arise. However, the same things would apply to the other counsels. There are some men who cannot embrace the more perfect following of Christ because they are too attached to their possessions, as the young man in the Gospel was. Similarly, there are some who cannot enter religious life because they are unwilling to give up their own will. And as with chastity, there may be some who are unsuitable for entering because of a habit such as that of disobedience. But as in the case of chastity, the better thing to do in such a case is to overcome the obstacle, to learn to obey, rather than to give up.
In summary, many are unable to live the religious life because there is a deficiency in their wills: they do not want to enter religious life, or they want to enter religious life for a bad reason, or want to enter for a good reason but are not really willing to embrace all that it entails. However, it is in their power to correct this defect of will, by prayer, meditation, and similar things, and it is better to do this than to choose some other way of life. Thus St. Alphonsus de Liguori says that someone who is badly disposed should not enter religious life, but should acquire a better disposition.
Let him who wishes to enter religion not forget to resolve to become a saint, and to suffer every exterior and interior pain, in order to be faithful to God, and not to lose his vocation. And if he be not resolved to this, I exhort him not to deceive the Superiors and himself, and not to enter at all, for this is a sign that he is not called, or, which is a still greater evil, that he wishes not to correspond, as he ought, with the grace of his vocation. Hence, with so bad a disposition it is better to remain without, in order to acquire a better disposition, to resolve to give himself entirely to God, and to suffer all for God.50
He does not say that it is better to give up the intention to enter religious life, but that it is better to remain without in order acquire a better disposition. If, however, someone is not willing to acquire a better disposition, then it may be better for him to give up the intention of entering, and look elsewhere.
It may here be noted that when someone is in this way unable to live the religious life, and is not correcting this deficiency, we can also say that religious life is not better for him, because it is not better for him to live the religious life disposed the way he is. For the religious life offers a better means to perfection, but if someone misuses it, he will not profit from it as he should, and may overall be worse off. St. Thomas gives this reason as the reason why the evangelical counsels are not profitable for all individuals.
Insofar as it takes away the anxiety which arises from wealth, it [poverty] is useful for some, namely those who are disposed so as to be occupied with better things, while harmful to those, who, freed from this anxiety, fall into worse occupations.51
Next are the objections based upon reason. The first of these was that just as bodily weakness may prevent someone from living religious life, so other bodily dispositions may do so, and some bodily dispositions take a long time to discover. In reply to this, I distinguish between bodily dispositions whose natural effects take actions entirely away from the control of the reason, and dispositions whose natural effects do not do so. Included in the former are bodily weakness, a proclivity to insanity, seizures, and similar things, while included in the latter are tendencies to sexual desires, to become angry easily, and similar things.
Dispositions of the first kind can prevent someone from living the religious life. However, when they are not evident, they can usually be found only by a doctor. Obviously as regards whether one has such dispositions as can be found only by a doctor, deliberation is not needed, but rather the advice of a doctor. When someone knows that he has such dispositions, then he needs to determine whether they are such as will prevent him from living the religious life. Here deliberation should be made, and advice sought. It seems to me, and to St. Thomas, that generally the deliberation here does not have to be long, but this is not usually a great point of dispute, so I will not elaborate on it.
Dispositions of the second sort, on the other hand, cannot on their own prevent someone from living the religious life. For if they do not limit the reach of reason, but only make it harder to follow, then they cannot prevent someone from doing the things required by religious life, but only make it harder for him to do them. But religious life is not undertaken because it is easy, nor should it be avoided because it is hard, and so dispositions of this sort are not an obstacle to entering religious life unless someone is not willing to do what he must do in order to overcome them.
The second objection, that there must be grounds for thinking that the one who enters religious life will continue to pray and strive to live that life, is granted. However, sufficient grounds are found in the very determination to take the means necessary to live that life together with the hope of receiving from God the grace to do so. If someone decides to live the religious life because it is better, then he will only change his mind because he stops knowing that it is better, or because he is in some way drawn away by his passions. The first of these is rather unlikely, since unless they are deceived by their teachers, those who aim at religious life and those who enter will not only not stop knowing that religious life is the better life, but will come to know this even more. And the fact that deception is possible does not mean that someone who wants to enter religious life should not do so, but that he should make sure he enters a good institute. The other possibility demands more consideration.
There are some men who decide to enter religious life at some point in the future, but do not do so because they come to want to do something else more than they want to enter religious life. Usually it is because they want to marry someone with whom they fall in love after they decide to enter religious life, though there are sometimes other motives.
There are others who enter religious life but who leave before making final vows. This is sometimes for the same reason as above, namely because they want something else, usually marriage, other times because after experiencing the difficulties of religious life they are no longer willing to embrace them. This is not limited to the difficulties connected with perfect continence. Men also change their minds about religious life after the experience of being without their own property. Even more often, men change their minds after the experience of being subject to a superior.52
Finally there are those who for similar reasons, even after making final vows, do not want to live that life which they chose. This can happen in two ways, only one of which is wrong. When someone vows to do something, it is because he knows that doing it is a better good, and desires to do it as a better good. Thus after making the vow, he has two reasons for doing that thing, namely because it is the better thing in itself, and because he has vowed to do it. He may later on stop desiring it in itself, and wish that he had not vowed it in the first place. However, as long as he still does what he has vowed to do because he has so vowed, he not only does nothing wrong, but does better than someone who does the same thing for its own sake, without a vow.
Not to be congratulated is the freedom by which it happens that what is paid with gain is not owed… Do not regret that you have vowed, rather rejoice that now you are not permitted what you earlier would have been permitted with detriment to you… Happy is the necessity which compels to better things.53
The reason for this is that when done by a vow it pertains to a higher virtue, not only is the deed done offered to God but also the power to do it, and the will is firmer in doing it, which pertains to virtue, as Aristotle states in the Nichomachean Ethics [1105b1].54 Thus, of these two possibilities, the case we must consider is the case in which someone becomes unwilling to do what he has vowed even though he has vowed it.
Now the possibility of the first occurrence, of turning aside from the intention to enter religious life in order to marry, should not prevent anyone from deciding to enter religious life. In the first place, someone who does this is not usually much worse off, and is often better off, than if he had never intended to enter religious life. The reason for this is that when someone has rightly decided to enter religious life, he begins to act in accordance with that decision. Secondly, someone who is considering entering religious life, but has not yet decided to do so, is much more likely to be swayed by the desire to marry than someone who has decided to enter. This is first of all because the decision to enter religious life sets the will more firmly in this desire, and secondly because those who decide to enter religious life take more steps to safeguard their vocation than those who are only considering entering. Thus the possibility of being drawn away by passion is normally not a reason for not deciding to enter religious life, and is even a reason to make the decision. St. Thomas similarly argues that making a vow to enter religious life is in itself praiseworthy.55
Similar things can be said about the second occurrence, of someone leaving religious life before making final vows. Someone who does this is certainly not much worse off, and may even be better off for the time he has spent. Thus as concerns his personal good, this possibility should not deter someone from making temporary vows, and even less from deciding to enter religious life. It might be said, however, that it is bad for an order to have someone enter who will probably leave. This may be granted, yet it would not follow that someone has to make sure that he will persevere before he decides to enter, but only that he has to make sure that he will persevere before in fact entering. For as was said above speaking generally, someone can, without long deliberation, decide to enter religious life after he has overcome the obstacles to entering.
The third occurrence, of someone who does not want to live the religious life even after making final vows, is of greater moment. Such a man sins greatly, and the possibility of this happening must be taken into account at some point. Now this evil can be considered with respect to the individual man, or with respect to the common good. With respect to the individual man, the consideration is this: he can choose to enter religious life, the way of perfection, and risk being unfaithful, or he can choose another way such as marriage, which might have less risk.56 Considered in this way, religious life can be chosen as long as there is reasonable hope of remaining faithful. The mere possibility of being unfaithful should not prevent someone from embracing the greater good, just as the possibility of apostasy should not prevent someone from being baptized. Whence St. Augustine, having spoken of the condemnation which falls upon the one who turns back from his vows, says:
Be ye not slow, that are able, whom God doth inspire to seize upon higher callings: for we do not say these things in order that ye may not vow, but in order that ye may vow and may pay. Now because we have treated of these matters, thou perchance wast willing to vow, and now art not willing to vow. But observe what the Psalm hath said to thee. It hath not said, “Vow not;” but, “Vow and pay.” Because thou hast heard, “pay,” wilt thou not vow? Therefore wast thou willing to vow, and not to pay? Nay, do both. One thing is done by thy profession, another thing will be perfected by the aid of God. Look to Him who doth guide thee, and thou wilt not look back to the place whence He is leading thee forth.57
Nevertheless, sometimes someone can judge that he is so likely to be unfaithful to vows that he should not make them at that time. For example someone who has habitual incontinence, often breaks his word or disobeys in regard to weighty matters, would be unlikely to keep the vows of religious life if he made them immediately, and thus he should not make these vows as long as he in this situation. However, since it is certain that he can overcome such vices, he can plan on making these vows after he overcomes the vices which present an obstacle. Thus even someone of this kind can decide to enter religious life without long deliberation. Further, at least as regards his personal good, he can even enter religious life while he has such vices, as long as he is determined to overcome them.
When we consider the common good, we find this: superiors can admit only those who are most likely to remain faithful, or can also admit those who are not as likely, with the result that more will be unfaithful. Apart from a revelation from God, it is manifestly impossible to be certain that any particular person will be faithful, and so some judgment must be made, whether implicitly or explicitly, about the certainty of a candidate’s faithfulness which will be required. The degree of certainty which should be required clearly depends upon a weighing of the good done by receiving more people against the evil done by those who are unfaithful. The degree which is required will vary depending upon many things such as the character of a given people, the particular character or condition of a religious institute58, and even the condition of the Church in general. This is clearly stated by Paul VI in regard to the priesthood.
15 …Yet by the supernal invitation to the priesthood of which we have spoken, nothing is really effected, nothing is finished, unless he who has the power and responsibility for the ministry of the Christian people has tested and approved it. On account of this it belongs to the ecclesiastical authority to determine, in accordance with places and times, what numbers and virtues they must have, to whom the well-being of souls and of the Church may be fittingly entrusted.59
Thus it will in some cases be good and in some cases not be good for an order to accept someone with vices such as those mentioned above, assuming of course that the candidate is determined to overcome them. If he is not, then probably he should never be accepted. Of course, the determination of what should be required of candidates for the sake of the common good should be done by those in charge of the common good, not by the individual who desires entrance into religious life.
Another example of this sort of thing is the practice of religious orders of requiring those who enter to have had the desire for religious life for some length of time, or of making those who desire admission wait for some time before they are admitted. They do this in order to determine that the individual in fact solidly desires religious life, and consequently will persevere. But as is clear from above, it is not necessary for the individual to demand such a sign in himself before he chooses to enter. It is often evident to him that he solidly desires religious life, and in any case he does not need to determine that his will is solid if he is willing to take the means to strengthen it. And the decision to enter religious life is one of these means. An even greater one, of course, is making a vow to enter religious life. This is presently a rather uncommon practice, perhaps unfortunately. It would sometimes be good for someone who at times wants to enter religious life and at other times does not want to enter, to make such a vow. It is not necessary for the purposes of this thesis to go into details about when it would be good to make such a vow. It should, however, be noted that this vow should not be made lightly.
From these considerations we see that although there must be a basis for thinking that one will continue to strive to live the religious life well and continue to pray to God for the help to live it, it does not follow that long deliberation is required before deciding to enter religious life. For the aforesaid basis, being found principally in firmness of will, and perhaps the absence of great vices, is attainable by virtually everyone.
I have now shown that both of St. Thomas’s premises are true. But an objection is also raised against the way he argues. St. Thomas mentions neither God’s will nor the vocation, or call, by which God calls someone to religious life. He does not argue that a man does not need to deliberate for a long time before entering religious life because long deliberation is not needed in order to know that it is God’s will for him to enter religious life, or in order to know that he is called to religious life. Rather, he argues that long deliberation is not needed before entering religious life because long deliberation is not needed in order to determine that it is better to enter.
This method of argumentation, going from what is good to what should be done, is sometimes objected to on the grounds that no matter how good entering religious life is, one should not enter unless God calls one to do so. However, what is good is always the same as what is conformed to God’s will in reality, even if we do not mean the same thing by good as we mean by God’s will. For God wills our good more than we will it. On account of this St. Paul can say “That you may prove what is God’s will, what is good and acceptable and perfect.”60 Thus if something is good, we can conclude that it is God’s will, and if something is God’s will, we can conclude that it is good.
Consequently, the correct procedure is to follow what is better known. If God does not manifest his will to us in a special way, then we should follow what we can determine as good, while if God does specially manifest his will, we should follow that. The question then is, in the choice of a way of life, should we determine what the better thing to do is, or should we look for special signs of God’s will?
The answer to this question is found first in the scriptures, where Christ says, “If you would be perfect, go, sell what you have, etc.” The reason we are given for choosing voluntary poverty is that it is a better means to perfection. Similarly St. Paul says that he who marries does well, but he who remains a virgin does better, assigning the reason for choosing virginity to its excellence.
That special signs of God’s will are not normally found in those called to the religious life and priesthood is also shown by the teaching and the practice of the Church.
She does not require such special signs in candidates to the religious life, which implies that they do not have to be present, or at least that it is not necessary to find them.
Can. 597 – 1. Any Catholic, endowed with a right intention, who has the qualities required by universal and proper law and who is not prevented by any impediment can be admitted to an institute of consecrated life.61
And the qualities that are required by universal law are given here:
Can 642 – Superiors are to be vigilant about admitting only those who, besides the required age, have health, suitable character and sufficient qualities of maturity to embrace the particular life of the institute; this health, character, and maturity are to be attested to, if necessary by using experts, with due regard for the prescription of can. 220.62
It might be thought that these are merely the legal demands, and that something more, namely a vocation, is required. But against this, it is clear from many places that those who are canonically suitable for any state of life are free to choose it.
In choosing a state of life there is no doubt but that it is in the power and discretion of each one to prefer one or the other: either to embrace the counsel of virginity given by Jesus Christ, or to bind himself in the bonds of matrimony.63
4… no one may prevent those who are canonically suitable from entering religion, since the religious state by its very nature lies open to all the faithful and is to be held in honor by all. “Let no one, who is unwilling, be driven to this kind of consecrated life; but, if one wishes it, let there be no one who will dissuade him, much less prevent him from undertaking it.”64
It follows from this last text that if someone desires religious life as the better life, and is canonically suitable, he should not think that he may not be called to religious life, and consequently refrain from entering. For if no one ought to prevent him from entering, then he ought not to prevent himself, which he would do if he refrained from entering for the aforesaid reason.65
The popes also tell explicitly the signs of vocation, all of which are not specifically signs, but certain things which are found in one who has a vocation. The following is a clear text on the signs of the priestly vocation.
He who oversees the Seminary with prudent and vigilant care, who follows with zealous solicitude the youths entrusted to him, one by one, and examines their impulses and gifts of mind, will without exceeding difficulty discover and know who of them is called by heavenly bidding to receive the priesthood. This inclination ready to undertake the sacred duties is manifested, as you well know, Venerable Brethren, not so much by a conscious interior attraction and motion of the senses, which can often be absent, as by the right propensity and intention of mind of those who desire the priesthood, joined to those ornamenting virtues of soul and body which render them fit to embrace this office. He who aims for this sacred institution for this one noble purpose, to give himself to the divine service and the salvation of souls, and at the same time either has attained or is striving to attain, solid piety, proven chastity, and suitable learning such as we have spoken of, is truly, as is clearly evident, called to the priestly ministry by God.66
It may be noted that in general more is required for the priestly vocation than for the religious vocation, especially in regard to holiness of life, which is demanded by the priesthood, but is the goal of religious life.
Finally, even when God’s will is given as the criterion for determining whether one should enter religious life, we find the same thing. The things looked for as signs of God’s will are precisely those things which make religious life the best choice. St. Ignatius Loyola, for example, writing about choosing a way of life, states clearly at the beginning that one should strive for nothing other than to do God’s will, yet says that this can be found by a consideration of which way of life is best for one.67
St. Alphonsus de Liguori also says that the one important thing in choosing a way of life is to choose that to which God calls one,68 yet he clearly denies that it is necessary to have special signs of God’s will.
[In order for the novice to overcome the temptation to doubt whether he has a true vocation], he ought to consider how and when one can be sure of his vocation. It is a true vocation whenever the following three conditions concur: First, a good intention, namely, to escape from the dangers of the world, the better to insure your eternal salvation, and to unite yourself more closely to God. Secondly: When there is no positive impediment for want of health, talents, or some necessity on the part of one’s parents, in regard to which matters the subject ought to quiet himself by leaving all to the judgment of Superiors, after having exposed the truth with sincerity. Thirdly: That the Superiors admit him. Now, whenever these three things truly concur, the novice ought not to doubt that his vocation is a true one.69
Thus it is clear that one should try to determine what is best rather than look for special signs of God’s will. But lest someone misunderstand this statement, I add that this does not mean that one should not consider God’s will at all. For it is not false to say that one should do what God wills. Nor is it useless, since this consideration helps us to be subject to God, to make our choice based upon supernatural motives rather than natural or earthly ones, and to see the importance of the choice we make. Thus before choosing we should pray to know God’s will and to do it70, and in choosing and entering a way of life we should consider the fact that such is God’s will. For since God sees all things and orders them most wisely, it is certain that there will be more reasons than we know for us to be in our chosen state, and this consideration will help us to persevere in our choice. Whence when St. Ignatius speaks of choosing a way of life based upon what way of life is the best for one, he says to pray to choose in accordance with God’s holy will.71
Objections are also raised to this thesis and the argument for it based upon what are or at least appear to be consequences of it. If this thesis is true, it seems that most people are called to religious life, and therefore most people do not follow their vocation. In addition, the Church says that religious life demands a special call, not given to everyone.72 Finally, it seems to be opposed to charity and humility to hold this position. For if one holds this position and enters religious life, then he must hold that he is better than those who marry. But this seems to be prideful, and as St. Augustine says, “better is a virgin humble, than a married woman humble: but better is a married woman humble, than a virgin proud.”73 Thus it seems that regardless of the truth of this position, it should not be held or taught.
To resolve the first two difficulties, it is necessary to consider what it means to say that someone is called. The notion of a vocation, or call, has been taken from Scripture, where Christ says, “Come, follow me.” However, this can be applied in many different ways, and it has not always been used the same way throughout the Church’s history. For this reason I will first set out its relevant uses in this present time, and then the way in which we can say that men and women are called to the religious life, or to the married life.
To call something is to draw it according to knowledge. Thus animals can be called, but not plants. This drawing can be done externally or internally. (1) Men are externally drawn to holiness by the command to be holy, as the Lord God is holy. Similarly, individual men are drawn to a particular action either by a command or counsel given them individually, as the disciples to whom Christ said “Come, follow me,” or by their own individual circumstances, which make it necessary to do something, or better to do it.
(2) Sometimes we limit a call to something which is “heard”, something which produces a response. Thus Christ says, “I came not to call the righteous, but sinners.”74 He says this not because his words are not directed to all men, but because they will not produce a response in those men who consider themselves righteous.
These things, whether spoken words, or individual circumstances or conditions, are in a certain way external to the intellect and will. They are things which man understands, by means of which he sees that he must do something, or that it is better for him to do something. (3) There is another way in which God can direct man towards an end, namely by enlightening a man’s intellect so that he sees the good, and moving his will to it. God does this in an imperfect way by making him desire it, and in a perfect way by making him choose it. When God does this, he is said to call that man to that end.75 In this vein, John Paul II describes how men receive from God the gift to see the value of the evangelical counsels.
6. The structure of this vocation, as seen from the words addressed to the young man in the synoptic Gospels, is traced little by little as one discovers the fundamental treasure of one’s own humanity in the perspective of that “treasure” which man “has in heaven.” In this perspective the fundamental treasure of one’s own humanity is connected to the fact of “being, by giving oneself.” The direct point of reference in such a vocation is the living person of Jesus Christ. The call to the way of perfection takes shape from Him and through Him in the Holy Spirit, who continually “recalls” to new people, men and women, at different times of their lives but especially in their youth, all that Christ “has said,” and especially what He “said” to the young man who asked him: “Teacher, what good deed must I do to have eternal life?” Through the reply of Christ, who “looks upon” His questioner “with love,” the strong leaven of the mystery of the Redemption penetrates the consciousness, heart and will of a person who is searching with truth and sincerity.
Thus the call to the way of the evangelical counsels always has its beginning in God: “You did not choose me, but I chose you and appointed you that you should go and bear fruit and that your fruit should abide.” The vocation in which a person discovers in depth the evangelical law of giving, a law inscribed in human nature, is itself a gift!76
In this way, everyone who rightly chooses marriage, and any other way of life, is called to it by God. And conversely, whoever embraces some way of life without being called to it in this sense, sinfully embraces it. For all good is caused by God, and therefore every right choice of a way of life is caused by God, while every choice not caused by God is a sinful choice. Considered in this way, however, there is at least ordinarily a difference between the call to marriage and the call to religious life. For the desire for marriage is a fundamental desire which religious life does not fulfill in the ordinary way; hence men need a special grace to choose religious life, which they do not need in order to marry.
4… A man and a woman leave their father and mother and cleave to their own husband or wife to begin a new family (cf. Gn 2:24). The Book of Genesis presents this vocation of the human creature in the simplest but very indicative words. At a certain moment in life, the young person, male or female, becomes conscious of this call and takes account of it. Of course, it is a different call from a priestly or religious vocation, for which a special invitation by Christ, a personal call to follow him is decisive: “Follow me” (Mt 4:19).77
It should be kept in mind, however, that this grace is precisely that of desiring religious life because it is a more perfect way. Thus while this grace is a condition for choosing religious life, it is not the reason for choosing it in the sense that the one who enters religious life has certain reasons for choosing it. Rather, he chooses religious life because it is a better way to perfection, or at least that should be the reason why he chooses it.
I will now consider the consequences of this thesis in relation to the vocation, or call. If we take the first sense of calling, according to which someone is said to be called to that which is the best thing for him to do, then it is certain that many more people are called to religious life than in fact enter.78 However, it is not true that almost every one is called to religious life, especially if religious life is taken in the strict sense. There are several classes of people who are not called in this way:
(1) Those who receive extraordinary signs from God indicating that they should marry, or do something else opposed to religious life. (2) Those who because of a special relation to the common good can accomplish the most good by marrying. (3) Those who are unable to live the religious life because of bodily weakness, or because of obligations which they have. This would, of course, not necessarily mean that they should marry, since religious life is not the only way to live the evangelical counsels. I will speak about this case below. (4) Those who are unable after trying for a long time to bring themselves to choose religious life. Someone might want to enter religious life, but be unable to bring himself to do it, either because he is drawn too much to other things, or because he does not have sufficient confidence that he will be able to live that life. St. Augustine was in this situation for a time. Now clearly these are both defects. To be so drawn to lower things that one cannot choose the higher is a defect of will, while to lack confidence in the ability to live that life is based upon either a defect of will, when someone is unwilling to take the means necessary to live it, or upon a defect of intellect, when someone does not recognize that God is the primary giver of the ability. Nevertheless, it can happen that someone earnestly tries for a long time to rid himself of such a defect, and yet fails. God might allow this to happen in order to show more manifestly that he is indeed the first author of every vocation. In a case like this, although clearly it is possible for the person involved to have confidence in God’s assistance, and to be sufficiently detached from worldly things, if he does not know what to do to change things in the future, it is better for him to consider other vocations than to waste time trying in vain to choose religious life. This fourth case, unlike the third, will often exclude all forms of consecrated life at the same time as religious life. The chief reason for this is that it is in general harder to live the consecrated life outside of a community than within one.
The first and the second of these are uncommon. The third is a quite common reason why someone cannot enter religious life, though it does not nearly as often entirely prevent someone from following the evangelical counsels. The fourth is not presently very common. It might be more common if more people wanted to enter religious life.
There is another kind of reason why it may be better for someone to choose marriage rather than religious life, and this reason is rather common in the present age. (5) If someone through no fault or deficiency of his own believes that it is better for him to marry than to enter religious life, even if it is not really true, then as long as he believes this, it is better for him to choose marriage than to choose religious life. For men act according to what they know, and so they ought to act according to what they ought to know. Thus, if someone who has no reason to doubt his teacher is taught either explicitly or implicitly that one should choose between marriage and religious life based upon one’s feelings, and consequently he believes that he should marry, then he ought to marry rather than to do what he reasonably believes is less good. This doctrine, that one should choose a vocation based upon one’s feelings, is sometimes taught outright, and very often taught implicitly.
If we take all these men together, they comprise a fair number who are not called to religious life, even in the first sense given above, namely that it is better for them to enter. But in any case, when we consider a calling in this sense, that it is the best thing for someone to do, it is not very surprising if most people do not follow their calling, for as we all offend in many things, so in even more things do we act imperfectly, both in small matters and in great ones. The reason why people do not want to grant that far more are called than answer, is that they assume that someone who does not follow his calling necessarily does something bad. But this is only true when calling is taken in the third sense given above, according to which God is said to call someone to a way of life when he moves them to choose it. In this sense, as was said, everyone who rightly chooses marriage is called to marriage.
The second objection, that religious life demands a call not given to most people, can also be easily answered by the distinctions made above. The call to religious life is usually restricted to those who “hear” Christ’s call in the Gospel, and in response desire religious life, in accordance with the second and third meanings of call given above. That this is so can be seen from the fact that it is quite unusual for someone who does not have a desire for religious life to be said to be called to it. And among those who desire religious life, some are not proximately disposed to it. Normally those who desire religious life but are not proximately disposed to it are not said to have a vocation simply, but the beginning, or the seed of a vocation.79
To the last objection, that even if this position is true, it is contrary to charity and humility to hold and teach it, it should first be noted that something true cannot be opposed to these in virtue of itself, but only accidentally, as by being the occasion for something opposed to these virtues. For example, suppose that someone learns of a treasure which can easily be stolen, and then goes and steals it. It is not because of this knowledge that he steals, but because of his corrupt will, though it remains true that it might have been better to hide this knowledge from him.
When we apply this consideration to the position taken in this thesis, we see that this position can be an occasion for sins against charity or humility. However, these can be avoided, while it is unavoidable that if the essentials of the position presented in this thesis are not taught, many who would otherwise choose the better part, and enter religious life, will marry. St. Augustine suggests a consideration like this when answering objections against exhorting all to continence.
28. Go on in your course, and run with perseverance, in order that ye may obtain; and by pattern of life, and discourse of exhortation, carry away with you into this same your course, whomsoever ye shall have had power… Nor let it stay you from your earnest purpose of persuading others to the same good ye have, if it be said to you, Whereas marriage also is good, how shall there be all goods in the Body of Christ, both the greater, forsooth, and the lesser, if all through praise and love of continence imitate? In the first place, because with the endeavor that all be continent, there will still be but few, for “not all receive this word.” But forasmuch as it is written, “Whoso can receive, let him receive,” then do they receive who can, when silence is not kept even toward those who cannot.80
Consequently, it is in fact contrary to charity not to teach this position. It should be taught at least generally to all, and in an opportune time more comprehensively to those who have a desire for religious life, while those who enter religious life or in another way vow continence should be admonished not to become proud and conceited, but to recognize that they have received this gift from God, and that this gift does not necessarily make them simply speaking better than one who has not received this gift. This must be done all the more when this position is taught, since when it is held, there is a greater temptation to take pride in continence. For this reason St. Augustine devotes the entire second half of his book of holy virginity to humility. Towards the end of it he states why he does so.
52. Here some one will say, This is now not to write of virginity, but of humility. As though truly it were any kind of virginity, and not that which is after God, which we had undertaken to set forth. And this good, by how much I see it to be great, by so much I fear for it, lest it be lost, the thief pride.81
To have true humility it is necessary to recognize the good which one has, and whom one has it from. Thus St. Augustine says that it is first necessary to ascribe the continence which one has to God.
42. Wherefore let this be the first thought for the putting on of humility, that God’s virgin think not that it is of herself that she is such, and not rather that this best “gift cometh down from above from the Father of Lights, with Whom is no change nor shadow of motion.”82
Secondly it is necessary not to raise oneself above others. This does not mean that one should not recognize that it is better to be willing to embrace continence than not to be willing, but that one should recognize that this is being better in a certain respect, not simply. For continence pertains to perfection not as though perfection consists in it, but insofar as it is the better means to perfection. But it is better to have the end of virtue, than to have a means for arriving at this end. Whence St. Augustine says that those who are willing to be continent are better than those who are not so willing, but only insofar as they are such, not simply.
27… I am better than those, who through incontinence of mind cannot do what I do; not than those, who, on account of difference of time, did not do what I do.83
29…if you compare a drunken virgin with a sober married woman, who can doubt to pass the same sentence?…30… Not only is the obedient to be preferred to the disobedient, but a more obedient married woman to a less obedient virgin.84
This virtue, by which one man is simply speaking better than another, is not always manifest, and is never perfectly manifest. Whence someone who chooses to be continent cannot be sure that he is better than some other person, who does not so choose. And this is what Augustine goes on to say.
44. Next let not man, now that he knoweth that by the grace of God he is what he is, fall into another snare of pride, so as by lifting up himself for the very grace of God to despise the rest. By which fault that other Pharisee both gave thanks unto God for the goods which he had, and yet vaunted himself above the Publican confessing his sins. What therefore should a virgin do, what should she think, that she vaunt not herself above those, men or women, who have not this so great gift? For she ought not to feign humility, but to set it forth: for the feigning of humility is greater pride….
45. Wherefore what shall we say? Is there any thought which a virgin of God may truly have, by reason of which she dare not to set herself before a faithful woman, not only a widow, but even married?… Where both are obedient unto the commands of God, shall she so tremble to prefer holy virginity even to chaste marriage, and continence to wedded life, the fruit an hundred-fold to go before the thirty-fold? Nay, let her not doubt to prefer this thing to that thing; yet let not this or that virgin, obeying and fearing God, dare to set herself before this or that woman, obeying and fearing God; otherwise she will not be humble, and “God resisteth the proud!” What, therefore, shall she have in her thoughts? Forsooth the hidden gifts of God, which nought save the questioning of trial makes known to each, even in himself. For, to pass over the rest, whence doth a virgin know, although careful of the things of the Lord, how to please the Lord, but that haply, by reason of some weakness of mind unknown to herself, she be not as yet ripe for martyrdom, whereas that woman, whom she rejoiced to set herself before, may already be able to drink the Cup of the Lord’s humiliation, which He set before His disciples, to drink first, when enamored of high place?…
47… No one, as I suppose, will have dared to prefer virginity to martyrdom, and no one will have doubted that this latter gift is hidden, if trial to test it be wanting. A virgin, therefore, hath a subject for thought, such as may be of profit to her for the keeping of humility, that she violate not that charity, which is above all gifts, without which assuredly whatever other gifts she shall have had, whether few or many, whether great or small, she is nothing. She hath, I say, a subject for thought, that she be not puffed up, that she rival not; forsooth that she so make profession that the virginal good is much greater and better than the married good, as that yet she know not whether this or that married woman be not already able to suffer for Christ, but herself as yet unable, and she herein spared, that her weakness is not put to the question by trial…. In order, therefore, that each be not puffed up by reason of that, which he sees clearly that he can do, let him humbly consider that he knows not that there is perchance something more excellent which he cannot do, but that some, who neither have nor profess that of which he is lawfully self-conscious, are able to do this, which he himself cannot do. Thus will be kept, not by feigned but by true humility, “In honor preventing one another,” and, “esteeming each the other higher than himself.”85
Proceeding in this way, we will avoid both of two opposite errors. We will not be over wise, setting ourselves above the truth, and so fall into error ourselves and lead others astray, nor will we be righteous overmuch, exalting ourselves and despising others. And this narrow path is the only right way. We must take hold of the one truth, that religious life is the better life, with what follows from this, yet not withdraw from the other, that man sees the exterior, but God judges the heart.
This thesis is about a practical matter. Accordingly, I will here set out more distinctly how the things shown above bear on what should be done, both because arguments about practical matters are ordered to practice, and because it may help to clarify certain points of the thesis. But first I will give a summary of the principal points relevant to this which were stated above, arranged in order of certainty.86
(1) Religious life is the better life in general, and so whenever it is possible, it is better for a particular individual unless he stands in an extraordinary relation to the common good.
(2) Someone should embrace religious life because it is better for him, rather than because he has a special inspiration to embrace it, or is drawn by a sensible attraction to it.
(3) Hence, when it is certain that it is possible for someone to enter religious life, he can choose it as the better thing to do.
(4) The ability to live the religious life should be principally looked for from God.
(5) If there are obstacles which prevent someone from embracing religious life, it is better to consider whether they can be overcome, and to try to overcome them, then to simply give up.
(6) The obstacles which are presented by an individual’s disposition, other than poor health and those things related to it, are usually based upon either ignorance or weakness of will.
(7) Such obstacles can be overcome, if someone wants to overcome them, and asks God for assistance. Thus if the only obstacle which someone has to entering religious life is his disposition, then it is in his power to embrace religious life by overcoming this obstacle, if he wills to do so.
(8) Hence, apart from permanent obstacles such as bodily weakness or duties, everyone has it at least remotely in his power to embrace religious life, if he so wills, and it is certainly the better thing for him to do. Therefore he does not need to deliberate before choosing to embrace it.
From these things it is evident that if there is someone who firmly desires to do the most that he can to serve God, and is willing to embrace everything involved in this, whatever it is, then he should choose the best thing which is possible in his circumstances.87 If no obstacles such as poor health or duties to other people are present, he can without hesitation choose religious life, taken broadly to include consecrated life in secular institutes. If such obstacles are present, then he should determine whether or not they are transient, or can be overcome in a reasonable period. If the obstacles are likely to remain and cannot be overcome, he should consider how far they limit him. Often it will be possible for someone in this situation to live the consecrated life in a secular institute. If this is not possible for some reason, then he should consider living a life devoted to God by simply private vows. If none of these are possible, which is unlikely to be the case, then it is probably best for him to marry, if this is possible for him.
Often, however, someone will somewhat desire religious life, but will not desire it entirely or firmly because he is drawn by his passions. Apart from people who have a mistaken idea of vocation, this is the most common reason why those who desire religious life do not finally choose it. This is the situation in which St. Augustine was, as he relates in the Confessions.
(2) …I was still firmly tied by woman… From the mouth of truth I had heard that there are “eunuchs who have castrated themselves for the kingdom of heaven’s sake”. But, he says, “let him who can accept this accept it”… Now I had discovered the good pearl. To buy it I had to sell all that I had; and I hesitated.
(11) In this way I understood through my own experience what I had read, how “the flesh lusts against the spirit and the spirit against the flesh” (Gal. 5: 17)… I was still bound down to the earth, I was refusing to become your soldier, and I was as afraid of being rid of all my burdens as I ought to have been at the prospect of carrying them.88
It is of course not possible for someone to strengthen his will simply by willing it to be stronger, as Augustine states further on, “(21)… The mind orders the mind to will. The recipient of the order is itself, yet it does not perform it.”89 However, while the will cannot strengthen itself immediately, it can do so indirectly, by willing certain actions. Out of love for God one can indirectly increase one’s love for God, by meditation, by prayer, by good works, and other such things, which are within the will’s power. Likewise one can strengthen the will to remain continent by these kinds of things. Thus St. Augustine was somewhat helped by the consideration of the multitude who have remained continent.
(26)… The overwhelming force of habit was saying to me: “Do you think you can live without them [your old loves]?”
(27) Nevertheless it was now putting the question very half-heartedly. For from that direction where I had set my face and towards which I was afraid to move, there appeared the dignified and chaste Lady Continence, serene and cheerful without coquetry, enticing me in an honorable manner to come and not to hesitate. To receive and embrace me she stretched out pious hands, filled with numerous good examples for me to follow. There were large numbers of boys and girls, a multitude of all ages, young adults and grave widows and elderly virgins. In every one of them was Continence herself, in no sense barren but “the fruitful mother of children” (Ps. 112: 9), the joys born of you, Lord, her husband. And she smiled on me with a smile of encouragement as if to say: “Are you incapable of doing what these men and women have done? Do you think them capable of achieving this by their own resources and not by the Lord their God? Their Lord God gave them to me. Why are you relying on yourself, only to find yourself unreliable? Cast yourself upon him, do not be afraid. He will not withdraw himself so that you fall. Make the leap without anxiety; he will catch you and heal you.”90
Thus, the best thing for someone who is in this situation to do, is dispose himself to have a better will, by praying for it, and by meditation and other practices aimed at this. If however they are not willing to dispose themselves to have a better will, then in many cases it will be best for them to marry, at least in my opinion. There are some saints who seem to disagree with this, and say that it is only better for someone to marry if he cannot be chaste otherwise.91 However, this does not seem very likely, for as St. Augustine says, it is only better to be perfectly continent if one is going to use this freedom well.
Now, at this time, not to seek offspring after the flesh, and by this means to maintain a certain perpetual freedom from every such work, and to be made subject after a spiritual manner unto one Husband Christ, is assuredly better and holier; provided, that is, men so use that freedom, as it is written, so as to have their thoughts of the things of the Lord, how to please the Lord; that is, that Continence at all times do take thought, that obedience fall not short in any matter…92
Thus it seems likely that most of the time when someone is not going to use his continence in order to serve God, it is better for him to marry, even if he could be chaste without doing so.
A third case which may arise is that of someone who decided to enter religious life, then abandoned this intention, perhaps several times, and is again reconsidering it. There is not one thing which should always be done in this case; rather it depends upon the circumstances. If there is reason to think that things will be otherwise the next time, then he can go ahead and decide to enter. One way this could happen is if the reason why he forsook his original intention was that he did not know that he should take steps to preserve it, and now he knows better. Or it might be that he did not take strong enough means. In some cases there is a rather sure means of preserving the intention to enter religious life, namely making a vow to enter. As in the previous case, however, if such a person does not know what he can do to strengthen his will, or is unwilling to take the means to do so, then it may be best for him to marry.
A fourth case is that of someone who entered religious life, and then left because he decided that he was not called to it, or because his superiors decided this. Now it appears probable from the things said above, that as St. Alphonsus implies when giving the signs of a vocation, the only way in which an individual should himself make the judgment that he is not called, is if he knows that he does not have a good intention in entering religious life, or that he is not resolved to live it well. As regards other things, and even this matter if it is doubtful, the judgment should be left to superiors. Thus it seems that when someone leaves, not because he no longer desires religious life, or is no longer willing to live it, but because for some other reason he thinks that he is not called, this is often based upon a mistaken notion of what a call is, or how it should be determined. If he later corrects this notion, there is in general no reason why he should not seek religious life.
The case is somewhat different when someone’s superiors decide that he is not called to religious life. Quite often in the present age this is based upon a mistaken notion of religious vocation, but I will leave that case aside, and consider the case where they are right in their judgment. In such a case, he can do one of two things. If he has a sufficiently good reason to think that he has changed or will change in the future with respect to those things which made him unsuitable, then if he so desires, he can aim to return to that same order or institute. The second thing he can do is consider whether those same things which made him unfit for life where he was, also make him unfit for all institutes and forms of consecrated life. He may find that he simply entered the wrong institute, or perhaps he is more fit for a secular institute than a religious institute, or conversely, that he is more fit for a religious institute than a secular institute. Perhaps he might do best to follow the evangelical counsels simply by private vows. We find a common example of this sort of thing in clerical institutes. Someone may enter, and then turn out to be unsuitable for Holy Orders. Often, it would be best for him to enter a lay order. But if someone like this finds that those things which made him unfit for the life at which he was aiming, also make him unfit for other forms of the consecrated life, then he should continue to aim for the consecrated life only if he has or can obtain good reason to think that he has changed or will change in the future with respect to those things which made him unfit for this kind of life.
There is one last thing which should be noted. Just because someone can choose to enter religious life without long deliberation, it does not follow that they can also choose which institute they should enter without long deliberation, especially now, with such a great variety of them, and when so many are not faithful to the ideals of religious life. On account of this, together with the fact that this college provides a formation not equaled elsewhere, it seems to me that many of the students at this college should not actually enter religious life before finishing here, although it would be praiseworthy for them to choose it.
There is much confusion about the choice of a state of life, especially in regard to religious life. In this thesis I have argued that it is not necessary to deliberate for a long time before choosing the religious life, and in doing so have presented what I believe is in its essence the unanimous teaching of the saints about this choice. I hope that it may play some part in the revival of this teaching. May it be an occasion for returning to the saints themselves, who are our true teachers, and whose teaching on this matter in particular is too much neglected.
Then let us not end with merely knowing this truth, but let us use it for the sake of him who is the truth itself, and who is both the source and the fulfillment of this teaching. Let us turn to him that he may enlighten us and inflame us with his love. May those who thirst for perfection come to this fountain of living water, and there find the strength to choose that better part which will not be taken away, but will be completed in the everlasting contemplation of him from whom, in whom, and for whom all things are, the only Lord and God forever and ever.
Whom
have I in heaven but thee?
And
there is nothing upon earth that I desire besides thee.
My
flesh and my heart may fail,
But
God is the strength of my heart and my portion for ever.
Alphonsus de Liguori, Counsels Concerning a Religious Vocation, in The Great Means of Salvation and of Perfection, Volume III of The Complete Ascetical Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori. (Brooklyn, NY: Redemptorist Fathers, 1927)
Letters of St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori, Part I, General Correspondence, Volume II. (New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: Benziger Brothers, 1892)
Miscellany, Volume XVII of The Complete Ascetical Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori. (New York, Cincinnati, Chicago: Benziger Brothers, 1890) -- The Counsels Concerning a Religious Vocation are contained in this volume also.
Augustine, Confessions, translated by Henry Chadwick (Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998) Latin text in P.L. (Patrilogiae Latinae) XXXII
Epistola CXXVII To Armentarius and Pauline, P.L. XXXIII. An English translation is in Volume 18 of The Fathers of the Church (New York, NY: Fathers of the Church Inc., 1953)
Expositions on the book of Psalms, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Volume VIII. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans) Latin text in P.L. XXXV
Of Holy Virginity, in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Volume III. (Idem.) Latin text in P.L. XL
On the Good of Marriage, Ibid.
On the Good of Widowhood, Ibid.
Bellarmine, Robert, De Monachis, in Opera Omnia Vol. II, (iuxta Venetam: Neapoli, 1857)
Chrysostom, John, Homilies on the Gospel of Matthew, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Volume X
Denzinger, Henry, Enchiridion Symbolorum, Edition XXXVI, (Rome: Herder, 1976)
Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises, (New York, NY: Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1948)
Jerome, Against Jovinianus, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Volume VI. Latin text in P.L. XXVI
Commentarium in Mattheaum, P.L. XXVI
John XXIII, Pope, Encyclical Letter Sacerdotii Nostri Primordia, promulgated on August 1, 1959, A.A.S. (Acta Apostolicae Sedis) 51 (1959)
John Paul II, Pope, Apostolic Exhortation Redemptionis Donum, promulgated on March 25, 1984, Electronic text at www.vatican.va and in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II (Gervais, OR: Harmony Media)
Apostolic Exhortation Vita Consecrata, promulgated on March 25, 1996, Ibid.
General Audience on March 31, 1982, in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II. Also in L’osservatore Romano, Weekly Edition in English, 5-12 April 1982, p.5
Homily on December 15, 1994, in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II
Origen, Commentary on Matthew, in The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol X (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans)
Paul VI, Pope, Encyclical Letter Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, promulgated on June 24, 1967, A.A.S. 59 (1967)
Pius XI, Pope, Encyclical Letter Ad Catholici Sacerdotii, promulgated on December 20, 1935, A.A.S. 28 (1936)
Encyclical Letter Casti Connubii, promulgated on December 31, 1930, Vatican translation (Boston, MA: Pauline Books and Media) Latin text in A.A.S. 22 (1930)
Apostolic Letter Unigenitus Dei Filius, to the Superiors General of religious Orders and of other Congregations for men, promulgated on March 19, 1924, in The States of Perfection (Boston, MA: The Daughters of St. Paul, 1967) Complete Latin text in A.A.S. 16 (1924)
Pius XII, Pope, Encyclical Letter Sacra Virginitas, promulgated on March 25, 1954, (Washington DC: National Catholic Welfare Conference) Latin text in A.A.S. 46 (1954)
Sacred Congregation of Religious, The General Statues annexed to the Apostolic Constitution Sedes Sapientiae, promulgated by Pope Pius XII on May 31, 1956 (Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1957)
Thomas Aquinas, Catena Aurea (Rome: Marietti, 1922)
Commentarium in Matthaeum. (Rome: Marietti, 1951)
Summa Contra Gentiles, Leonine Edition, 1934
Vatican Council II, Perfectae Caritatis, promulgated on October 28, 1965, NCWC Translation, in The Sixteen Documents of Vatican II, (Boston, MA: The Daughters of St. Paul)
Perfectae Caritatis, Latin text, in Constitutiones, Decreta, Declarationes. (Rome: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993)
Code of Canon Law, Latin-English Edition. (Washington DC: Canon Law Society of America, 1983)
Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version. Greek text from Novum Testamentum Graece et Latine, Nestle and Aland (London: United Bible Societies, 1963)
The States of Perfection, selected and arranged by the Benedictine monks of Solesmes, Translated by Mother E. O’Gorman, R.S.C.J. (Boston, MA: The Daughters of St. Paul, 1967)
Now as against the perfection of poverty, so against the good of continence certain perverse men have spoken opinions. They attempt to exclude the good of continence by these and similar arguments.
1. The union of man and women is ordered to the good of the species. But the good of the species is more divine than the good of the individual. Therefore he who entirely abstains from the act by which the species is preserved sins more than he who abstains from an act by which the individual is preserved, such as eating and drinking, and other things of this kind.
2. Further, by the divine ordination members are given man fit for generation, and also a concupiscible power inciting him, and other things of this kind ordered to this. Therefore he seems to act against the divine ordination who entirely abstains from the act of generation.
3. Again, if it is good that one be continent, it is better that many be, and best that all be. But from this it follows that the human race would fail. Therefore it is not good that a man be entirely continent.
…
It is not difficult to answer these arguments according to the things which have been set out above. For it should be considered that there is one account to be had in those things which pertain to the necessity of each individual man, and another in those things which pertain to the necessity of the multitude. For in those things which pertain to the necessity of each man, each man must be provided for. Of this sort are food and drink, and other things which pertain to the sustenance of the individual. Whence it is necessary that each one use food and drink.
But in those things which are necessary for the multitude, it is not necessary that they be given to each individual of the multitude: nor is it even possible. For it is evident that many things are necessary for the multitude of men, as food, drink, clothing, a house, and other things of this kind, which cannot possibly be procured by one. And therefore it is necessary for there to be diverse offices of diverse men, as diverse members in the body are ordered to diverse acts.
Therefore since generation is not of the necessity of the individual, but of the necessity of the whole species, it is not necessary that all man give themselves [vacent] to acts of generation, but some, abstaining from these acts, are given to other offices, such as warfare or contemplation.
From this the answer to the second is evident. For by divine providence are given to man those things which are necessary for the whole species, yet it is not necessary that each man use each of those. For man is given the industry for building, strength for fighting, yet it is not necessary that all be builders or soldiers. Likewise, although the generative power and those things which are ordered to its act were divinely provided for man, it is not necessary that each one intend the act of generation.
Whence also the answer to the third is evident. For from things which are necessary for the multitude, although with respect to individuals it is better to abstain, being given to better things, it is not better that all abstain, as appears also in the order of the universe. For although spiritual substance is better than bodily, it would not be a better universe in which there were only spiritual substances, but a more imperfect one. And although the eye is better than the foot in the body of an animal, the animal would not be perfect unless it had both eye and foot. So also neither would the multitude of the human race have a perfect state if there were not some intending acts of generation, and others abstaining from this and devoting themselves to contemplation.
Proceeding thus to the second. It seems that no one should be obliged by vow to enter religious life.
…
2. Further, Gregory says, in the register, and it is cited in the Decrees, dist. XLV, that Jews “are to be persuaded to convert not by force, but by free will.” But to fulfill what is vowed, is of necessity. Therefore no one should be obliged to enter religious life.
3. Further, no one should give another an occasion for ruin, whence it is said in Exodus 21:33-34, “if someone opens a cistern, and a cow or ass falls into it, the master of the cistern shall pay the price of the beasts.” But because some are obliged by vow to religious life, it often happens that they fall into despair and diverse sins. Therefore it seems that no one should be obliged by vow to enter religious life.
…
I respond, it is to be said that as was said above, when the vow was treated, one and the same work done by vow is more praiseworthy than if it is done without a vow. For vowing is an act of religion, which has a certain excellence among the virtues. Then also because by a vow man’s will is made firm toward doing good, and as a sin is graver because it proceeds from a will obstinate in evil, so a good work is more praiseworthy because it proceeds from a will made firm toward good by vow. And therefore to be obliged by vow to enter religious life is according to itself praiseworthy.
…
To the second it is to be said that this authority of Gregory is understood about absolute violence. But the necessity which is required by the obligation of a vow, is not absolute necessity, but the necessity from an end, namely because after the vow, someone cannot obtain his end, salvation, unless he fulfills the vow. But such necessity is not be avoided, rather, as Augustine says, To Armentarius and Pauline, “happy is the necessity which compels to better things.”
To the third it is to be said that vowing entrance into religious life is a certain firming of the will toward better things. And therefore, inasmuch as is of it, it does not give man an occasion for ruin, but rather takes it away. But if someone falls more gravely, a transgressor of his vow, this does not derogate from the goodness of the vow, just as it does not derogate from baptism that some sin more gravely after baptism.
Proceeding thus to the fourth. It seems that he who vows to enter religious life, is bound to remain there forever.
1. For it is better not to enter religious life than to leave after entering, according to 2 Pet. 2:21, “it was better for them not to know the truth than to go back after it was known.” And in Lk. 9:62 it is said, “no one setting his hand to the plow and looking backwards, is fit for the kingdom of God.” But he who obliges himself by vow to enter religious life, is bound to enter, as was said. Therefore he is also bound to remain there forever.
2. Further, one should avoid that from which scandal follows and a bad example is given to others. But because someone leaves after entering religious life and returns to the world, there is caused a bad example and scandal to others, who are drawn back from entering and are provoked to leave. Therefore it seems that he who enters religious life to fulfill the vow which he made earlier, is bound to remain there forever.
…
To the first, therefore, it is to be said that it is better to enter religious life in the spirit of testing, than not to enter at all, since by this one is disposed to remain there forever. And the only one who is understood to go or look backwards, is he who forgoes that to which he has obliged himself. Otherwise whoever does a good work for some time, if he does not always do it, would be unfit for the kingdom of God, which is evidently false.
To the second it is to be said that he who enters religious life, if he leaves, especially for a reasonable cause, neither causes scandal nor gives bad example. And if another is scandalized, it will be passive scandal on that one’s part, but not active scandal on the part of the one leaving, since he did what was licit for him to do, and what was better for him on account of a reasonable cause, such as infirmity or weakness or something of this kind.
Whether it is praise-worthy for someone to enter religious life
without the counsel of many people and long previous deliberation
Proceeding thus to the tenth. It seems that it is not praiseworthy for someone to enter religious life without the counsel of many people and long previous deliberation.
1. For it is said in 1 John 4:1, “Do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits, whether they are from God.” But sometimes the intention to enter religious life is not from God, since it is frequently dissolved by leaving religious life. For it is said in Acts 5:38, “If this counsel is from God you will not be able to dissolve it.” Therefore it seems that only after great previous deliberation should one enter religious life.
2. Further, it is said in Prov. 25:9, “Treat your affair with your friend.” But what pertains to a change of state, seems most of all to be a man’s affair. Therefore it seems that one should not enter religious life, unless he first treats with his friends.
3. Further, the Lord in Lk. 14:28, gives a likeness of “A man who wishes to build a tower, that first sitting down he calculates the means which are necessary, whether he has enough to complete it”; lest he should be mocked: “This man began to build, and could not finish.” Now the means for building the tower, as Augustine says in the letter to Laetus, “is nothing other than that each man renounce everything which is his.” But it sometimes happens that many cannot do this, and likewise cannot bear the other observances of religious life. In a figure of this it is said in 1 Sam. 17:39 that “David could not walk in Saul’s weapons, because he was not used to them.” Therefore it seems that one should not enter religious life except after long previous deliberation and having taken counsel from many people.
I respond, it is to be said that long deliberation and the counsel of many people are required in great and doubtful things, as the Philosopher says in Ethics III, but counsel is not required in those things which are certain and determined. Now three things can be considered concerning the entrance into religious life. First of all the entrance into religious life according to itself. And thus it is certain that entrance into religious life is the better good, and he who doubts about this insofar as it is in itself, disparages Christ, who gave this counsel. Whence Augustine says in On the Words of the Lord, “The East calls you,” that is Christ, “And you look to the West,” that is to mortal man, who is able to err. In the second way, the entrance into religious life can be considered in relation to the strength of the one who is to enter it. And thus also there is not a place for doubt about the entrance into religious life, since those who enter religious life do not trust that they can persevere in it by their own power, but by the help of the divine power, according to Is. 40:31, “They who hope in the Lord will renew their strength; they will take wings as eagles, they will run and not toil, they will walk and not faint.” Yet if there is some specific obstacle, such as bodily weakness or the burden of debts, or things of this kind, deliberation about them is required, and counsel with those whom it is hoped will help and not hinder. Whence it is said in Sir. 37:12, “Treat with an irreligious man about holiness, and with an unjust man about justice”; as though it were to say: Do not. Whence follows, “Do not attend to these in any counsel, but be constantly with a holy man.” Nevertheless long deliberation is not to be had in these things. Whence Jerome says in his letter To Paulinus, “Hurry, I beseech you, and cut rather than untie the rope that holds the boat to shore.” Thirdly the way of entering religious life can be considered, and which religious order one should enter. And about such things also counsel can be had with those who will not hinder one.
To the first it is to be said that when it is said, “Test the spirits, whether they are from God,” this has a place in those spirits about which it is doubtful whether they are spirits of God, as there can be a doubt for those who are in the religious state, whether he who offers himself to this state is led by the Spirit of God, or comes deceivingly. And therefore they should test whether the one who comes is moved by the divine spirit. But for him who seeks religious life, there cannot be a doubt about whether the intention of entering religious life has arisen in his heart from the Holy Spirit, to whom it belongs to lead man into the right land.
Nor does the fact that some go back show that it is not from God. For not everything which is from God is imperishable; otherwise perishable creatures would not be from God, as the Manicheans say, nor would those who have grace from God be able to lose it, which is also heretical. But God’s counsel by which he makes perishable and changeable things, is indissoluble, according to Is. 46:10, “My counsel shall stand, and my every will shall come to be.” And therefore the intention of entering religious life does not need testing whether it is from God, since “Things which are certain do not need discussion,” as the Gloss says on the last chapter of first Thessalonians, “Test all things.”
To the second it is to be said, that as “the flesh lusts against the spirit,” as is said in Gal. 5:18, so also frequently fleshly friends are opposed to spiritual progress: according to Mic 7:6: “A man’s enemies are those of his household.” Whence Cyril, expounding Lk 9:61, “Let me take leave of those who are at my home,” says: “Seeking to take leave of those who are at home, shows that he was in some way divided: for to communicate with his neighbors, and to consult those unwilling to relish just [equal] things, indicates that he is still in some way weakening and going back. On account of which, he hears from the Lord: “No one who has put his hand to the plow and looked back is fit for the kingdom of God.” For he looks back who seeks delay for a chance to return home and confer with kinsfolk.
To the third it is to be said that by the building of the tower the perfection of the Christian life is signified. Now the renunciation of one’s own things is the means for building the tower. But no one doubts or deliberates about whether he desires to have the means, or whether he can build the tower if he has the means; but whether someone has the means comes under deliberation. Likewise it should not fall under deliberation whether someone should renounce all the things which he possesses, or whether by doing this he could reach perfection. But it falls under deliberation whether this thing which he does, is the renunciation of all the things which he possesses, since unless he has renounced them, which is to have the means, he cannot, as is added in the same place, be a disciple of Christ, which is to build the tower.
And the fear of those who tremble whether by entering religious life they can reach perfection, is proven to be unreasonable by the example of many. Whence Augustine says in the Confessions VIII, “there appeared to me in the direction in which I had turned my face, and towards which I was afraid to go, the chaste dignity of continence, honourably urging me to come and not to doubt, and extending to receive me pious hands full of flocks of good examples: there so many boys and girls, there so much youth and every age, and grave widows and elderly virgins. She smiled at me with an encouraging smile, as if to say, ‘Can you not do what these men and women have done? Think you that these are able in themselves, and not in the Lord their God? Why do you stand in yourself, and do not stand? Cast yourself on him. Do not fear, he will not withdraw himself, so that you fall. Cast your self on him, secure, and he will catch and heal you.’”
And that example which is brought in of David, does not prove the intention. For Saul’s weapons, as the Gloss says, are “the sacraments of the law as though weighty,” while religious life is the sweet yoke of Christ, since, as Gregory says in Moral. IV, “What heavy yoke does he put upon our minds, who commands us to avoid every desire which perturbs, who advises us to turn away from the laborious journeys of this world?” To those taking this yoke upon themselves he promises the refreshment of the divine enjoyment, and the eternal rest of souls. May he bring us to this, he who has promised, Jesus Christ, Our Lord, who is God over all things blessed for ever. Amen.
1 ‘Religion’ is used to mean the state of being a religious or the way of life that a religious leads. I will not myself use this term; I will instead use the terms ‘religious life’, and ‘religious order’ or ‘religious institute’. However, I will preserve this other term when it is used in quotations.
2 Counsels Concerning a Religious Vocation, St. Alphonsus de Liguori, in The Great Means of Salvation and of Perfection, Redemptorist Fathers, 1927, pp. 381-384
3 In one sense it is not modern, since it has been around for a very long time. In the passage just quoted St. Alphonsus refers to “the men of the world”, who hold this opinion. However, it is only in modern times that it has become a nearly universal opinion.
4 Strictly, it is also necessary to add that the place of religious life has not changed since these saints spoke. That it has not can be seen from the universality of the account which they give, which does not depend upon the particular characteristics of an age. Cf. Leo XIII, Testem Benevolentiae, January 22, 1899 and Pius XI, Umbratilem remotamque vitam, July 8, 1924, speaking about the permanent value of religious life and of contemplative life.
5 Cf. The Code of Canon Law, n. 573
6 Cf. The Code of Canon Law, n. 607. Sometimes additional characteristics are added, which are based upon these. For example in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, n. 925, religious life is also distinguished by its liturgical character.
7 II-II 189-10
8 The word ‘can’, which is found in neither the Latin nor the Greek manuscripts, has been removed from the translation. The Greek word used here, PTDXT, can mean to have the capacity for something, but it is not a very likely meaning here; it would not make sense to say, he who can have the capacity for this, let him have the capacity. Still, it is understood in this way in a homily attributed to Chrysostom. He says, as quoted by St. Thomas in the Catena Aurea, “Not all receive this word, that is, not all can do this. [Here the words of Jerome] And the reason not all can receive, is because not all are willing.” (Marietti edition, 1922), Vol. I, p. 306 (my translation). I do not know of anyone else who clearly takes it this way. Now on the other hand, it may well be that ‘receive’ also does not precisely correspond to the meaning here. Perhaps the sense of this passage would be better rendered by “not all men get this saying, but only those to whom it is given… he who can accept this, let him accept it.” In any case, I have taken the word ‘can’ out in order to remind the reader that it is not present in the original manuscripts.
9 Mt 19:12. All quotations from Scripture are from the Revised Standard Version.
10 1 Cor. 7:8
11 “If anyone says that the married state is to be preferred to the state of virginity or celibacy, and that it is not better and happier to remain in virginity or celibacy than to be joined in matrimony, let him be anathema.” Canons on the Sacrament of Matrimony, Can. 10, in Enchiridion Symbolorum, Henry Denzinger, Herder, 1976, n. 1810 (my translation)
12 Encyclical Letter Sacra Virginitas, Pius XII, March 25, 1954, The National Catholic Welfare Conference, p. 11
13 Mt 19:21
14 Mt 19:29 (Emphasis added)
15 Cf. I-II 108-4 ad 3, also Redemptionis Donum, John Paul II
16 Cf. II-II 186-5 Sed Contra, also Redemptionis Donum
17 Apostolic Letter Unigenitus Dei Filius, Pius XI, March 19, 1924, to the Superiors General of religious Orders and of other Congregations for men, in The States of Perfection, The Daughters of St. Paul, 1967, n. 378
18 Encyclical Letter Sacerdotii Nostri Primordia, Pope John XXIII, August 1, 1959, A.A.S. (Acta Apostolicae Sedis) 51 (1959) p. 551 (my translation)
19 Vita Consecrata, Pope John Paul II
20 1 John 1:16
21 Cf. ST I-II 108-4. This relation of the three vows to the triple concupiscence is also made several times by Pius XII, e.g. “[To reach the summits of evangelical perfection] he had felt the necessity of observing the counsels of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the religious life, making the voluntary immolation of the triple concupiscence, which inclines souls towards the goods of this world, prompts them to the pleasures of the flesh, and inspires them with the thirst for independence.” Allocution to pilgrims at the Beatification of Anthony Maria Pucci of the Servites of Mary, June 23, 1952, The States of Perfection, n. 807. Also Cf. Redemptionis Donum for a fuller account of this.
22 1 Cor. 7:32-34
23 Mt 13:22
24 This last fact is the reason why this life is ‘consecrated’ life. These three reasons are given by St. Thomas in II-II 186-7.
25 This explains why Christ invites all to receive chastity who are able and says every one who has left etc., and why John XXIII says that the counsels are open to all of the faithful as the surest road to Christian perfection.
26 Mt 19:10 (All square brackets mark my additions.)
27 Mt 19:23-26
28 Commentary on Matthew Book XIV near the end, Origen, in The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol X, Eerdmans, p. 512
29 Commentarium in Evangelium Matthaei, St. Jerome, P.L. XXVI, p. 139 (my translation)
30 Sacra Virginitas, p. 21
31 Perfectae Caritatis, Vatican Council II, October 28, 1965, N.C.W.C. Translation, in The Sixteen Documents of Vatican II, The Daughters of St. Paul, pp. 306-307 (emphasis added)
32 31st homily on Matthew, Gregory Nazianzen, quoted by St. Robert Bellarmine in De Monachis, in Opera Omnia, Volume 2 (Neapoli, 1857) p. 276 (my translation)
33 Commentarium In Evangelium Matthaei Lib. III. Cap. XIX, St. Jerome, P.L. XXVI, p. 148 (my translation)
34 Homily LXII on the Gospel of St. Matthew, Chrysostom, in Volume X of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Eerdmans, p. 384 (adapted to current English usage)
35 De Monachis, Robert Bellarmine, in Opera Omnia, Volume 2 (Neapoli, 1857), p. 275 (my translation)
36 Letter 634, in Letters of St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori, Part I, General Correspondence, Volume II, Benziger Brothers, 1892.
37 Mt 19:12
38 1 Cor. 7:7
39 Against Jovinianus, St. Jerome, in NPNF (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers), 2nd series, Vol. VI, p. 373
40 Sacra Virginitas, p.16
41 Commentarium in Matthaeum, Marietti 1951, Lectura XIX, n. 1572. (my translation)
42 Mt 19:11-12
43 General Audience of Pope John Paul II, March 31, 1982, in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II, Harmony Media. Also in L’osservatore Romano, Weekly Edition in English, 5-12 April 1982, p. 5
44 Jn. 6:60
45 Commentary on Matthew, Origen, Ibid.
46 Against Jovinianus, St. Jerome, in NPNF 2nd series, Volume VI, p. 355
47 Allocution to Girls’ Catholic Action, given by Pius XII on April 24, 1943, in The States of Perfection, n. 588
48 Sacra Virginitas, pp. 15-16
49 Ibid., p. 16
50 Counsels concerning a Religious Vocation, in The Great Means of Salvation and of Perfection, p. 412
51 Summa Contra Gentiles, Book III, Ch. 133 (my translation)
52 There are other reasons why people leave, but I am here considering only the cases where they leave because they no longer desire religious life due to their passions.
53 Epistola CXXVII To Armentarius and Pauline, St. Augustine, P.L. XXXIII, p. 487 (my translation) There is an English translation in Volume 18 of The Fathers of the Church, Fathers of the Church Inc., 1953
54 Cf. II-II 88-6
55 II-II, 189-2
56 The more common case may be where someone is more likely to be unfaithful if he marries than if he enters religious life. It seems to be implied by the sayings of the saints that this is so, since otherwise religious life should not be counseled as a safer way of life.
57 On Psalm LXXVI, in Expositions on the book of Psalms, NPNF Vol. VIII, p. 359
58 An evident example of how the particular character affects things can be seen in the difference which exists in this regard between contemplative and active orders. Generally contemplative orders will be much more inclined than active orders to accept people with vices, as long as they are determined to overcome them.
59 Sacerdotalis Caelibatus, Pope Paul VI, June 24, 1967, A.A.S. 59 (1967), pp 662-663 (my translation)
60 Rom. 12:2
61 Code of Canon Law, Latin-English Edition, Canon Law Society of America, 1983
62 Ibid.
63 Casti Connubii, Encyclical Letter Of Pope Pius XI, Vatican Translation, Pauline Books and Media, p. 7. The pope is here quoting Rerum Novarum.
64 The General Statues annexed to the Apostolic Constitution Sedes Sapientiae, The Sacred Congregation of Religious, The Catholic University of America Press, 1957, Art. 32, p. 45
65 The ‘no one’ in the cited text was in fact probably not intended to include the one who desires religious life. However, if there were some reason for which he who desires religious life and is canonically suitable ought to prevent himself from entering, then someone else could prevent him for the same reason. Therefore there is no reason why someone who desires it and is canonically suitable ought to prevent himself.
66 Ad Catholici Sacerdotii, Pius XI, December 20, 1935 A.A.S. 28 (1936), p. 40 (my translation)
67 Cf. Spiritual Exercises, Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1948, n. 177 ff.
68 Cf. Counsels Concerning a Religious Vocation, near the beginning. The text is in The Great Means of Salvation and of Perfection, p. 375 ff.
69 Exhortation to Novices to Persevere in their Vocation, in Volume XVII of The Complete Ascetical Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, Benziger Brothers, 1890, pp. 175-176
70 This is not said in contrast to not praying at all to know what to do, but in contrast to only praying to know what it is best to do.
71 Op. Cit., n. 180
72 For example, “The gift of religious vocation is rooted in the gift of baptism but is not given to all the baptized. It is freely given and unmerited: offered by God to those whom He chooses freely from among His people and for the sake of His people.” Essential elements in the Church’s teaching on religious life as applied to institutes dedicated to works of the apostolate, May 31, 1983, in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II, Harmony Media
73 On Psalm LXXVI, Expositions on the book of Psalms, NPNF Vol. VIII, p. 359
74 Mt. 9:13
75 We normally limit this use to the case where God makes someone desire one way of life in particular. When God makes someone desire two ways of life, we would not say that he has two vocations, one to each of them. We would, however, say that he has the seed of a vocation to each of them.
76 Redemptionis Donum
77 Homily by Pope John Paul II on December 15, 1994, in The Teachings of Pope John Paul II, Harmony Media
78 In fact, this is manifestly true for many reasons apart from the considerations in this thesis. E.g., many sin through the desire for sex, or for wealth. If moved by these, some sin, clearly others will act imperfectly for the same reason. Thus the young man went away sad because of his desire for wealth, and thus there are many who are not willing to embrace religious life whether or not it is better for them. Many are called, few are chosen.
79 The analogy of the seed seems to imply that this beginning of a vocation will in most cases grow into a completed vocation if it is properly nourished. And in fact, in many places the popes imply that this is so. Cf. in particular Ad Catholici Sacerdotii, towards the end.
80 On the Good of Widowhood, St. Augustine, NPNF Vol. III, p. 453
81 Op. Cit., Ibid., p. 436
82 Ibid., p. 433
83 On the Good of Marriage, Ibid., p. 411. St. Augustine is here talking about why a virgin cannot say that she is better than Abraham. In the present time one might also add, “I am not necessarily better than those who on account of being instructed wrongly, do not do what I do.”
84 Ibid., pp. 411-412
85 Of Holy Virginity, pp. 433-435
86 This does not imply that some of them are uncertain, but only that some are more certain than others. Many of these are logically interrelated, but I will here just mention the various authorities for these things. The first four of these are taught clearly by the Church. The fifth is the unanimous teaching of the saints. The sixth is evident from experience, and also has considerable testimony from the various authorities. The seventh is clearly true in some sense from the testimony of the Fathers of the Church and of the saints. The eighth can also be seen from the Fathers, and from most of the saints. Also, just as some of these are more certain than others, so some are more important than others. In general, the degree of importance is in the same order as the degree of certainty. The reason for this is that people insist most strongly on the most important things. The first five are by far the most important. If someone knows these five propositions, even if he does not know the last three, he will still be in a good position to judge what he should do.
87 This is the extension and clarification of St. Alphonsus’ statement that if any person loves chastity, she ought to choose what is more perfect, that is consecrate her virginity to Jesus Christ.
88 Op. Cit., translated by Henry Chadwick, Oxford University Press, 1998, Book VIII
89 Ibid.
90 Ibid.
91 E.g. St. Alphonsus de Liguori, in two of his letters, in The Great Means of Salvation and Perfection, pp. 470 & 478
92 On the Good of Marriage, p. 412. Cf. paragraph 12 of Sacra Virginitas in Appendix C, and the quotation above from the Summa Contra Gentiles, where a similar thing was said with respect to poverty.
Related pages
Fr. Richard Butler's book on vocation in Aquinas: Religious Vocation: An Unnecessary Mystery
What is a vocation according to Aquinas – a short article that considers the vocation to marriage and to religious life in light of the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas.
A collection of texts by St. Thomas Aquinas about the vocation to religious life
www.pathsoflove.com